A VALUABLE HISTORICAL SOURCE OF MONGOLIA:

MENGDA BEILU

HOW THE WORK “MEN-DA BEI-LU” WAS WRITTEN AND TRANSLATED

The only work written during the lifetime of Genghis Khan is the documentary text Men-da Bei-lu (蒙韃備錄, Měngdá Bèilù). Its literal meaning is “Collected Notes on the Mongol Tatars.”

It is said that this work was written around 1221 by Peng Daye and Xu Ting, envoys of the Southern Song dynasty, who personally traveled to Mongolia. These envoys recorded what they observed with their own eyes: the state established by Genghis Khan, the Mongols’ military organization, daily life, culture, political structure, customs, and their conquests.

Originally an independent work, it was later preserved in the Chinese compilation Shuofu (說郛). It was also included in the great historical collection Siku Quanshu (四庫全書).

This is one of the earliest factual records about the Mongols from the 1220s. It describes in great detail:

  • Politics: the origins of Genghis Khan, his sons, generals, and the state structure 
  • Military: organization of the Mongol army, tactics, and methods of capturing cities 
  • Daily life: horses, food, and lifestyle 
  • Culture: hairstyles, clothing, festivals, and the status of women 

Men-da Bei-lu, together with works such as The Secret History of the Mongols, The History of the Yuan Dynasty, Rashid al-Din’s Compendium of Chronicles, and Juvaini’s History of the World Conqueror, is considered a primary source for 13th-century Mongol history.

Its importance lies in the fact that it was written very close in time to the events—while Genghis Khan was still alive—and based on direct observation rather than hearsay. However, it also has weaknesses: it reflects a Sino-centric perspective, often portraying the Mongols as crude, barbaric, and uncultured. Due to misunderstandings, there are also many inaccuracies in terminology and interpretations of customs.

Because Men-da Bei-lu was written in classical medieval Chinese, even modern Chinese readers find it difficult to understand. Terminology does not always match modern Chinese usage. Therefore, most readers today rely on Wang Guowei’s 1926 annotated translation into modern Chinese.

Translations into other languages are highly important. An early translation was made in 1857 by Vasily Vasilyev under the title Notes on the Mongol-Tatars. However, this translation contains many errors and inaccuracies, later criticized by the French orientalist Paul Pelliot. Despite this, due to the lack of alternatives, major scholars such as Barthold and Vladimirtsov relied heavily on Vasilyev’s work.

In 1975, the Buryat scholar Nikolai Tsyrendorzhievich Munkuev published a more reliable Russian translation titled A Complete Description of the Mongol-Tatars. His work was based on Wang Guowei’s 1926 annotated Chinese edition.

In German, the academic translations by Paul Olbricht and Elisabeth Pinks are highly regarded among scholars.

However, a complete English translation does not seem to exist. Only partial translations appear in collections and academic works on Mongol history, often quoted from German translations rather than translated directly from the original.

A SUMMARY OF MONGOLS IN “MENG-DA BEI-LU”

Founding of the State (立國)

The Tatars first appeared in the northwestern regions of the Khitan state. Their lineage was a branch of the Shatuo, so they were scarcely recorded in earlier histories. They were divided into three groups: Black Tatars, White Tatars, and Wild Tatars.

The White Tatars had relatively refined appearances, gentle manners, and were filial to their parents. When their parents died, they would cut their faces while mourning. Once, when traveling with them, seeing people with scars on their cheeks and asking, “Are you White Tatars?” they answered, “Yes.” They captured Chinese children and raised them as servants, yet spoke politely to others. Within their tribe, a princess of Genghis Khan named Bekhi governed affairs. Later, an envoy named Subuhan from the White Tatars came to the Song court. Along the journey, he would politely say: “You must be tired; we have not treated you well enough—please do not take offense.”

The Wild Tatars were extremely poor, crude, and incapable, knowing little beyond riding horses and following others.

The present Genghis Khan and his generals are all Black Tatars. Generally, Tatars are not tall—the tallest are about 5 chi 2–3 cun (around 160 cm). They are not stout; their faces are broad and flat, with short upper and lower faces, high cheekbones, shallow eyelids, sparse beards, and rather unremarkable appearances. However, their leader Temujin is large and imposing, with a broad forehead, long beard, and heroic bearing, standing out from others. He is the son of Yesügei, a noble of earlier times. Now that he has founded a state, he is translated and called “Genghis Khan.” He has conquered lands in all directions, and his state has become powerful.

Rise of the Ruler (韃主始起)

The current Genghis Khan was born in the year Jiaxu (1157). They originally had no calendar and measured age by grass: “How many grasses have you seen?” meaning age. They did not know months or days—one full moon was a month, grass growth was a year.

In his youth, Genghis was captured by the Jin dynasty and enslaved for over ten years before escaping. Thus, he understood Jin conditions well. His character is brave, decisive, broad-minded, tolerant, reveres Heaven, and values loyalty. “Temujin” was his childhood name; originally, they had no surnames. Later, Jurchen defectors called him “Genghis Khan.” Some say “Genghis” means “Heaven’s blessing.”

State Name and Era Titles (國號、年號)

The Tatars’ neighbors included the Jurchen to the south and Shatuo tribes on both sides. Previously, there had been a state called Mongolia, which fought the Jin. In Li Liang’s Record of Campaign Against Mongolia, it says: “The Mongols used the ‘Tianxing’ era and called themselves Emperor Taizu Yuanming.”

The current Tatars were originally very crude and lawless, with no writing system—orders were carved with fingers, and envoys could not change a word. Later, through contact with the Uyghurs, they adopted the Uyghur script. In recent years, defectors from Jin taught them literacy, and now they use Chinese characters in dealings with Jin.

Previously, they named years as “Year of the Hare,” “Year of the Dragon,” etc. Now they use Chinese cyclical years such as Gengchen (1220) and Xinsi (1221). Admiring Mongolia’s strength, they named their state the “Great Mongol State.”

Princes and Royal Sons (太子諸王)

Genghis Khan had four brothers: Genghis (eldest), Second brother (died in war), Belgutei (alive), Temüge (a capable general). He had many sons:Biin (died attacking Jin), Jochi (eldest prince), Adai, Temülün, Lunsun, and many others.He had seven daughters: the eldest Ajinbei, second Arikhbekhi, others unclear.

Military Organization (軍政)

Tatars grew up on horseback, living by hunting, so they had no infantry—all were cavalry. They mobilized tens of thousands without written orders, relying on oral commands.

When besieging cities, they first captured small settlements, took prisoners, and ordered each soldier to take ten captives. These captives filled moats and leveled walls, dying in large numbers. After capturing a city, they killed everyone—young or old, male or female, rich or poor. Disobedience in battle was punishable by death, even for nobles.

Horse Economy (馬政)

Mongolia had abundant grass and water, ideal for raising livestock. Horses were trained after 1–2 years and fully ridden after 3 years. They moved in large herds, rarely neighed, did not flee even without tethering, and were very docile. Each warrior had several horses, changing mounts daily so they did not tire.

Food (糧食)

The main diet was kumis (fermented mare’s milk) and dairy. One mare’s milk could feed three people. In war, they slaughtered sheep and hunted animals like rabbits, deer, and wild boar. Thus, even large armies did not need to make fires.

Customs (風俗)

Mongols respected strength and youth more than elders. They rarely fought among themselves. On the first day of the year and the fifth day of the fifth month, they worshipped Heaven. They seldom washed their hands, wiping greasy hands on clothing. Women applied yellow powder to their foreheads; men shaved their hair in a specific style.

Religion (祭祀)

They practiced divination using sheep shoulder blades, heating them and reading the cracks. When drinking alcohol, they first offered it to Heaven. Thunder was feared as Heaven’s anger.

Women (婦人)

In war, they brought wives and children. Women set up tents, managed goods, and rode horses well. Noblewomen wore tall headdresses and long-sleeved robes. At feasts, men and women sat together.

Feasts, Dance, and Music (燕聚舞樂)

The Khan brought dancing women on campaigns. At feasts, guests had to drink alcohol to the last drop. If someone became drunk, vomited, or passed out, they would rejoice and say, “He has become one of us.” 

COMPARING MENG-DA BEI-LU WITH THE SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS

Meng-da Bei-lu was written in 1221, while The Secret History of the Mongols was composed in 1240. The former was recorded by a foreign observer from a different civilization who was unfamiliar with the Mongols and documented what he saw and heard. The latter, however, was created by the Mongols themselves. This is the main difference between the two sources. Both are primary sources.

The work initially referred to as A Brief Account of the Black Tatars represents an external observation, whereas The Secret History is an internal historical narrative. The advantage of the first lies in its direct observation, while the second provides detailed genealogy and events. However, the weakness of Meng-da Bei-lu is its bias as an outsider account, while The Secret History contains a significant amount of mythologized material.

There are many conflicting details between the two works. For example, Meng-da Bei-lu states that Chinggis Khan was the son of a leader named Jelo from an earlier millennium, while The Secret History identifies him as the son of Yesügei Ba’atur. It is possible that Chinese envoys misheard Yesügei’s name. Meng-da Bei-lu claims that Chinggis was captured in his youth by the Jin dynasty and enslaved for over ten years, whereas The Secret History says he was captured by the Tayichiud and imprisoned in a wooden cangue. This suggests confusion between different groups such as the Tatars and Tayichiud as separate states.

The birth year of Chinggis Khan is given as 1154 in Meng-da Bei-lu, which differs by eight years from The Secret History. Chinese envoys also failed to distinguish between “Mongol” and “Tatar,” writing as if the Mongols had only recently adopted a new name. In general, “Tatar” was a Chinese term used broadly to refer to all nomadic peoples north of the Great Wall. The names and numbers of Chinggis Khan’s children and relatives are also frequently recorded inaccurately.

Despite these discrepancies, the two sources share several consistent points. Both describe Chinggis Khan as “brave, decisive, broad-minded, heaven-worshipping, and trustworthy.” The Secret History similarly portrays him as “merciful, valuing companions, believing in Heaven, and firm in oath.” Both sources agree that Muqali was a general, that the military was organized into units of tens, hundreds, and thousands, that war booty was distributed proportionally, that each soldier had multiple horses, and that divination practices such as shoulder-blade burning were used.

The Chinese source is generally reliable regarding culture, military organization, daily life, and state structure, but contains many errors in genealogy, biography, and personal names. This is because the author lacked knowledge of internal Mongolian history, relied on hearsay, and distorted names through Chinese transcription.

A clear example is the name “Temüjin.” The word for “iron” today is “tömör,” which is of Turkic origin (temür), and was written similarly in Mongolian script. At the time, it was likely pronounced “Temürjin.” In modern Khalkha Mongolian, this becomes “tömörchin,” meaning “blacksmith,” or more broadly someone strong like iron. Such names were commonly given to newborn boys across many cultures.

The name Temüjin first appears in written form in Meng-da Bei-lu. In Chinese transcription, final “r” sounds are often omitted, and in spoken Chinese, the “r” sound is frequently replaced with “l.” Thus, “Temürchin” likely became “Temüjin.” Similarly, the name Alan Qo’a appears in Meng-da Bei-lu; due to the same “r” and “l” confusion, “Ariun-goa” may have been rendered as “Alun-goa.”

According to The Secret History, after her husband Dobun Mergen died, Alan Qo’a bore three sons, claiming she conceived them from a divine light entering her body. From this origin, they were called “pure” (ariun), while Dobun’s earlier sons were called “born” or “natural” (törlöh). Alan Qo’a explained that these three sons were “sons of Heaven” and should not be compared with ordinary people. She foretold that when the time came for them to become rulers, common people would understand their true nature. These two groups—“pure” and “born”—eventually united to form the Khamag Mongol.